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United States
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The same striving towards simplification, honesty and clarity are
identifiable in US architects of the same period, notably in the
work of Louis Sullivan in Chicago, and the west-coast residences of
Irving Gill. Frank Lloyd Wright's career in the 1900s and 1910s
parallels and influences the work of the European modernists,
particularly via the Wasmuth Portfolio, but he refused to be
categorized with them. In 1922, the competition for the Tribune Tower and its famous second-place entry by Eliel Saarinen gave a clear indication of what was to come. The term International Style came from the 1932 exhibition at the Museum of Modern Art, organized by Philip Johnson, and from the title of the exhibition catalog for that exhibit, written by Johnson and Henry Russell Hitchcock. |
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It addressed building from 1922 through 1932. Johnson named,
codified, promoted and subtly re-defined the whole movement by his
inclusion of certain architects, and his description of their
motives and values. Perhaps the masterstroke was the name, and the
positioning of this style as one that transcended any national or
regional or continental identity. Johnson also defined the style as an aesthetic surface style, rather than a matter of design integrity, and saw the architect as equivalent to an artist, accountable to nobody but himself. This was a departure from the functionalist principles of some of the original Weissenhof architects, particularly the Dutch, and especially J.J.P. Oud, with whom Johnson maintained a prickly correspondence on the topic. The gradual rise of the National Socialist regime in Weimar Germany in the 1930s, and the Nazi's rejection of modern architecture, meant that an entire generation of architects were forced out of Europe. When Walter Gropius and Marcel Breuer fled Germany, they both arrived at the Harvard Graduate School of Design, in an excellent position to extend their influence and promote the Bauhaus as the primary source of architectural modernism. When Mies fled in 1936, he came to Chicago, and solidified his reputation as the prototypical modern architect. After World War II, the International Style matured into modernism, HOK and SOM perfected the corporate practice, and it became the dominant approach for decades. Perhaps its most famous/notorious manifestations include the United Nations headquarters and the Seagram Building in New York. The typical International Style high-rise usually consists of the following: Square or rectangular footprint Simple cubic "extruded rectangle" form Windows running in broken horizontal rows forming a grid All facade angles are 90 degrees. One of the strengths of the International Style was that the design solutions were indifferent to location, site, and climate. This was one of the reasons it was called 'international'; the style made no reference to local history or national vernacular. They were the same buildings around the world. (Later this was identified as one of the style's primary weaknesses.) American anti-Communist politics after the war, and Philip Johnson's influential rejection of functionalism, have tended to mask the fact that many of the important contributors to the original Weissenhof project fled to the east. This group also tended to be far more concerned with functionalism. Bruno Taut, Mart Stam, the second Bauhaus director Hannes Meyer, Ernst May and other important figures of the International Style went to the Soviet Union in 1930 to undertake huge, ambitious, idealistic urban planning projects, building entire cities from scratch. This Soviet effort was doomed to failure, and these architects became stateless persons in 1936 when Stalin ordered them out of the country and Hitler wouldn't allow them back into Germany. In the late 1930s this group, and their students, were dispersed to Turkey, France, Mexico, Kenya and India, adding up to a truly international influence. In July, 2003, UNESCO, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, proclaimed "The White City" of Tel Aviv as a World Cultural Heritage site, describing the City as "a synthesis of outstanding significance of the various trends of the Modern Movement in architecture and town planning in the early part of the 20th century." |
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